Dealers of Lightning Summary

Introduction

Overview

This introduction sets the stage for the story of Xerox PARC and the invention of the Alto, the world's first true personal computer. It paints a vivid picture of a humble, late-night demo in 1973 that would plant the seed for the digital revolution, contrasting it with the tech industry fanfare of today. The narrative establishes PARC as a unique hothouse of innovation, driven by brilliant minds, generous funding, and a mandate to build a "time machine" for the future, while also acknowledging the complex and often misunderstood relationship between these visionary inventors and their corporate parent, Xerox.

The Birth of the Alto

On a quiet night in 1973, inside a nondescript building in the foothills of the Santa Cruz Mountains, engineer Chuck Thacker prepared to demonstrate a machine that defied all contemporary wisdom about computers. Thacker, described as an "engineer's engineer" renowned for his elegant, minimalist designs and intolerance for "biggerism," had led a small team to build the Alto based on a revolutionary concept.

This machine was not a room-sized mainframe shared by hundreds. It was compact enough to fit under a desk, interactively responsive to a single user, and communicated through a high-resolution display. It was, in the words of PARC scientist Alan Kay, a "personal computer." Thacker achieved this by employing ingenious tricks, replacing bulky hardware with efficient microcode to keep the design lean and fast.

The Cookie Monster Moment

With the Alto's own software not yet written, its functions were temporarily run from an external minicomputer. For its first test, the team had digitized a series of drawings of Sesame Street's Cookie Monster. As Thacker initiated the sequence, the group watched the screen flicker to life. The shaggy, bug-eyed character appeared, holding a 'C' and a cookie, animated in black and white. While the image was whimsical, the significance was profound. It proved that complex graphical information could be generated and displayed dynamically from digital memory. For Thacker and his colleagues, this was an indescribable thrill—a successful step into the void, proving their "time machine" worked.

PARC's Legacy and Impact

At a time when future industry giants like IBM, Microsoft, and Apple were focused elsewhere, PARC had already created the template for modern computing. The introduction emphasizes that nearly every fundamental aspect of today's digital experience originated or was refined at PARC: the graphical user interface with icons and overlapping windows, the word processor, bitmapped displays, WYSIWYG editing, laser printing, Ethernet networking, and even the underpinnings of object-oriented programming and 3D computer graphics.

The narrative positions PARC as the critical pivot point where computers were transformed from arcane tools for specialists into intuitive, human-scale instruments of communication and creativity.

The Engine of Innovation

The extraordinary creativity at PARC is attributed to four main factors: the seemingly limitless funding from Xerox's copier monopoly; a buyer's market for top scientific talent due to government budget cuts; a historical inflection point in semiconductor and integrated circuit technology; and a unique management philosophy that hired the best minds and gave them remarkable freedom to explore without strict corporate directives.

Myth versus Reality

The chapter directly addresses and corrects popular myths about PARC and Xerox. It argues that the common caricature—of a clueless Xerox completely ignoring brilliant inventions that later made others billions—is an oversimplification. While acknowledging Xerox's frequent failure to commercialize PARC's breakthroughs effectively, it notes that the company did earn billions from the laser printer alone, recouping its PARC investment many times over. It also clarifies that the Alto was always a research prototype, not a failed commercial product, and that Xerox actively patented PARC's inventions.

Key Takeaways

• The Alto, built at Xerox PARC in 1973, was the functional prototype of the modern personal computer, incorporating a graphical display, interactive use, and a single-user design a decade before commercial successes.
• PARC's culture was defined by brilliant, iconoclastic engineers like Chuck Thacker, operating with unparalleled freedom and funded by Xerox's copier revenues to invent the future.
• The core technologies of contemporary computing—the graphical user interface, word processing, laser printing, and Ethernet networking—were pioneered at PARC.
• The relationship between PARC's visionaries and the Xerox corporation was complex, marked by both generous support and profound failures in commercialization, a story more nuanced than the popular legend of total corporate neglect.
• PARC's success was a unique convergence of talent, timing, technology, and management philosophy, creating one of history's most prolific and influential research environments.

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Dealers of Lightning Summary

Chapter 1

Overview

This portrait of a leader begins with a paradox, seen in the mix of reverence and resentment at his retirement celebration. Bob Taylor was the masterful builder of legendary research teams, yet his fiercely competitive nature and protective instincts left many bridges burned. To understand him, we must look to his formative years: a childhood marked by constant moves across West Texas and the powerful story from his adoptive mother that he was specially chosen. These experiences forged a deep-seated belief in selection and an unshakeable confidence that he would later apply to spotting and nurturing genius.

His career philosophy was crystallized early. Rejecting the standard view of computers as mere calculators, Taylor saw them as fundamentally communications devices, with the display as the essential interface between human and machine. This conviction led him from NASA to a pivotal role at ARPA, where he joined the visionary J.C.R. "Lick" Licklider. Licklider’s concept of "man-computer symbiosis" perfectly matched Taylor’s own ideas, and under this banner, ARPA entered a golden age of funding interactive computing research.

As a manager, Taylor was a charismatic community builder and talent scout. He adapted Licklider’s approach to his own extroverted style, visiting researchers not to dictate but to listen and encourage, effectively holding auditions for a new generation of virtuosos. To forge these brilliant individuals into a cohesive community, he instituted annual ARPA conferences designed for intense, rigorous debate. He fostered a meritocratic environment where ideas were attacked, not people, believing this intellectual "roughhouse" was the best way to refine work and assess talent. This same principle guided separate conferences for graduate students, free from faculty oversight, where future visionaries like Alan Kay could present their bold, if initially dismissed, ideas.

Taylor’s vision often clashed with commercial pragmatism, a conflict starkly illustrated in the battle for the SDS 940 time-sharing computer. After a disastrous meeting where SDS founder Max Palevsky scorned the technology, Taylor’s bureaucratic savvy and sheer force of will helped demonstrate the machine’s potential, forcing its production. This victory proved the viability of accessible, interactive computing but left a personal rivalry with Palevsky unresolved—a harbinger of larger corporate clashes to come. Ultimately, Taylor’s legacy was built not on technical invention, but on his exceptional skill in cultivating people, fostering collaborative critique, and relentlessly advancing a user-centric vision of computing.

The Man Behind the Legend

The chapter opens not with dry facts, but with a portrait. A photograph of a youthful, pipe-smoking Bob Taylor hangs over his retirement party at a California winery in 1996, a gathering of the computing legends he once assembled at Xerox PARC. The scene sets up the central paradox of Taylor: the revered "impresario" who nurtured genius, yet whose competitive fire and ruthless protection of his team left a trail of burned bridges. Guests like Chuck Thacker and Butler Lampson testify to his unparalleled skill as a leader of engineers, while others allude to his infamous stubbornness and arrogance—the quarterback who always called the plays, on and off the field.

A Vision of Communication, Not Calculation

In a later interview at his Woodside home, Taylor articulates the core philosophy that guided his career. Rejecting the contemporary view of computers as mere mathematical devices, he saw them fundamentally as communications devices. He recalls the frustration of punch-card programming and champions the display as the critical interface between human and machine—the "entire point." This belief in interactive, personal computing, formed during his time funding the ARPANET, would become the bedrock of the PARC research he later oversaw.

Forging a Leader: Adoption and Itinerance

To understand Taylor’s powerful sense of selection and unwavering confidence, the narrative looks to his childhood. Two factors shaped him: his family's frequent moves across West Texas, which forced him to constantly re-establish his place in new social hierarchies, and the foundational bedtime story from his adoptive mother, Audrey, that he was specially chosen. This cultivated a lifelong belief in the power of selective anointment, which he would later exercise as a talent scout and manager. His academic path at The University of Texas was meandering, but he eventually earned a master’s in sensory psychology—a field that would deeply inform his user-centric view of computing.

From NASA to ARPA: The Path to a Revolution

Taylor’s career took him from designing flight simulators (where he saw the power of interactive learning) to a managerial role at NASA during the Mercury program. Finding the work more "pedestrian engineering" than true science, he sought an exit. It arrived via an invitation from J.C.R. "Lick" Licklider, the visionary psychologist running ARPA's new Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO). Licklider’s philosophy of "man-computer symbiosis" and his mission to fund interactive computing resonated perfectly with Taylor’s own ideas. Under Licklider, ARPA entered a golden age of lavishly funded, loosely managed research at top universities, setting the stage for the computing revolution. When Licklider returned to MIT in 1964, he was succeeded by the young graphics pioneer Ivan Sutherland.

Taylor’s Leadership and Management Style

Having unofficially taken the reins of IPTO, Bob Taylor quickly mastered the unspoken rules of Pentagon bureaucracy, understanding that influence often hinged on subtle distinctions. His successful fight to secure a GS-13 rank for his young assistant, Barry Wessler, was less about pay and more about ensuring professional respect within the military hierarchy—a small victory that exemplified his knack for working the system. ARPA’s civilian leadership gave him free rein to pursue his vision, which was a direct continuation of J.C.R. Licklider’s focus on interactivity, time-sharing, and graphics.

Taylor adapted Licklider’s management approach to his own extroverted personality. He became less an overseer and more of a community builder and talent scout. He made a point of visiting research grantees to seek out the most promising young faculty and graduate students, listening and encouraging with a charm that felt more like mentorship than dictation. In a sense, he was holding auditions for a new generation of computing virtuosi, creating a chosen family of brilliant minds.

Forging a Community Through ARPA Conferences

To combat the isolation between his far-flung researchers, Taylor instituted annual IPTO research conferences in appealing locations. These were working meetings designed to build a lasting professional network. Days were structured around communal meals and intense discussion sessions, where each researcher would present their work only to face rigorous, often brutal, critique from their peers.

Taylor encouraged this intellectual "roughhouse," believing it was the best way to uncover both the strengths and hidden weaknesses in his team's work. He acted as an observer, gleaning insights he might not get from formal reports. Crucially, he fostered an environment where ideas, not individuals, were attacked—a meritocratic democracy of sharp minds. He applied the same principle to separate conferences for graduate students, from which faculty (including himself) were barred, allowing the next generation to debate freely. It was at one such session that a young Alan Kay first presented his "crazy" idea for a portable "Dynabook," meeting with widespread skepticism from his peers.

The Battle for the SDS 940 and a Clash of Visions

Taylor was determined to advance interactive computing by making time-sharing more accessible. While big projects like MIT’s Multics aimed for 300 users, he also backed smaller-scale efforts like Project Genie at UC Berkeley. Genie modified an affordable SDS 930 computer into a capable time-sharing machine for a dozen or so users. Taylor, seeing its commercial potential, invited Max Palevsky, the founder of Scientific Data Systems (SDS), to adopt the design.

The meeting was a disaster. Palevsky, a supremely confident executive, dismissed time-sharing as a commercial dead end and scorned the Genie team's work. A heated argument ended with Taylor throwing Palevsky out of his office. However, SDS’s marketing director, Rigdon Currie, believed in the machine. He and Taylor arranged for potential customers to see the system in action at the Pentagon, securing enough orders to force Palevsky’s hand.

The machine was released as the SDS 940, priced at a steep $173,000 to recoup costs. Despite Palevsky’s lingering reluctance (the 940s were hand-assembled from 930s), it became a best-seller, proving the commercial viability of time-sharing. Taylor had won a significant battle for his vision, but the personal conflict with Palevsky was left unresolved, setting the stage for a future, much larger confrontation involving the Xerox Corporation.

Key Takeaways

• Bob Taylor’s genius lay not in technical prowess, but in exceptional people skills, talent cultivation, and bureaucratic savvy.
• He intentionally fostered a collaborative yet fiercely critical community among researchers, believing rigorous debate was the best way to refine ideas and assess talent.
• Taylor’s advocacy for smaller, affordable time-sharing systems, exemplified by the SDS 940, helped democratize access to interactive computing.
• His decisive clash with Max Palevsky highlighted a fundamental conflict between visionary technological idealism and conservative commercial pragmatism—a theme that would resound in his future career.

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Dealers of Lightning Summary

Chapter 2

Overview

Fresh off his arrival at Xerox, chief scientist Jack Goldman was already miserable in the gloomy confines of Rochester. When CEO Peter McColough tried to cheer him, Goldman confessed he might have made a mistake. McColough placated him with a small secret about a headquarters move, but kept a far larger one: he was finalizing the shocking, nearly billion-dollar acquisition of Scientific Data Systems (SDS), a computer company with shaky prospects in the business market. Dubbed "McColough’s Folly" by Wall Street, the deal was driven by a grand vision of Xerox controlling information, but it was done with extreme secrecy and minimal input from Goldman or his research team.

This oversight confirmed Goldman’s worst fears about Xerox’s culture, where research was isolated from strategy. He saw SDS as technologically unimpressive, but within the problem, he spotted a unique opportunity. He drafted a bold proposal for a new Xerox Advanced Scientific & Systems Laboratory, ostensibly to support SDS but truly aimed at creating a world-class basic research center. His memo presciently highlighted the coming importance of software, computer-driven printing, and graphics.

While McColough was enthusiastic, the plan faced fierce resistance from the new SDS faction on the board, like founder Max Palevsky, who saw it as corporate vanity. Others from the computer division argued the funds should go to immediate product upgrades instead of pure science. Goldman was disgusted by this short-term thinking, countering that fundamental research was the only path to long-term success for the very division opposing it.

Ultimately, the decision rested with McColough alone. He approved Goldman’s lab with a single condition: it must not surpass the size of the main research facility in Webster. With that lone restriction, Goldman secured his seed funding and set out on a personal mission to build a sanctuary for pioneering science—what would soon become the legendary Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). The chapter reveals a foundational tension between immediate product development and visionary research, a conflict McColough’s autonomous support was crucial to overcoming.

A Miserable Beginning and a Secret Deal

Jack Goldman, Xerox's new chief scientist, is thoroughly disillusioned by the relentless gloom of Rochester, New York, just a month into his job. His despair is so palpable that when CEO Peter McColough stops by to wish him a happy new year, Goldman bluntly declares he may have made a mistake. To placate him, McColough hints at one major secret—the impending relocation of corporate headquarters to Stamford, Connecticut—but withholds another, far more consequential one.

The Acquisition of Scientific Data Systems

Unbeknownst to Goldman, McColough has been negotiating to acquire Scientific Data Systems (SDS), a computer company in Southern California, for nearly one billion dollars. This decision, driven by former CEO Joe Wilson's vision that Xerox must master digital information, was made after offers to virtually every other major computer company were rejected. McColough pursued SDS despite its niche in scientific computing and its shaky prospects in the business data market dominated by IBM. He conducted the deal with extreme secrecy and minimal due diligence, persuaded by SDS founder Max Palevsky's sales pitch about a "perfect fit."

The acquisition was announced in February 1969, stunning Wall Street. The price, paid in Xerox stock, was widely seen as exorbitant, instantly making Palevsky Xerox's largest shareholder and earning the deal the nickname "McColough’s Folly."

Goldman's Reaction and a Diagnosis of Xerox's Culture

Goldman was shocked he was not consulted on a major technological acquisition. This oversight confirmed his fears about Xerox's culture, where research was siloed and irrelevant to strategic planning. The company's main lab in Webster was focused narrowly on incremental product development, not fundamental research or new technologies like computer-aided design. Goldman had joined Xerox precisely because McColough promised to change this top-down, insular approach.

He viewed SDS itself as technologically conservative, "a bunch of dumbbell copycats" unlikely to produce leading-edge innovation. However, he saw in the problematic acquisition a new opportunity.

Seizing the Opportunity: A Proposal for a New Lab

As shareholders approved the SDS deal, influenced by McColough's grand vision of controlling "the architecture of information," Goldman acted. He submitted a detailed proposal for a "Xerox Advanced Scientific & Systems Laboratory." Its surface rationale was to bolster SDS's weak research, but Goldman's true aim was to create a world-class basic research center akin to Bell Labs or IBM's facilities.

His memo foresaw key trends: the growing importance of software, the potential of a computer-driven xerographic printer (anticipating the laser printer), and opportunities in graphics and education. He proposed a lab that would grow to 300 researchers, recommending a location near the new Stamford headquarters to ensure relevance to Xerox's business.

Opposition and Enthusiasm

McColough embraced the idea, but it faced fierce opposition from the new SDS directors on Xerox's board, particularly Max Palevsky. He saw it as corporate vanity—"conspicuous consumption"—imitated from IBM without a real commitment to the long-term, costly nature of basic research. Despite this, the stage was set for the creation of what would become PARC.

The SDS Faction's Short-Sighted Proposal

Within Xerox, voices from the SDS computer division grumbled about the allocation of funds, arguing that the money should instead fuel an upgrade to their Sigma series computers, designed to replace the aging 930 model. This perspective prioritized immediate product development over broader scientific inquiry.

Goldman's Case for Basic Research

Jack Goldman reacted with disgust to this narrow focus. He countered that the most effective way to serve SDS's long-term interests was through a dedicated, independent investment in fundamental research, not just incremental tweaks to existing technology. He later reflected that those who stood to gain the most from such a lab were ironically the most disinterested.

McColough's Autonomous Decision

CEO Peter McColough held the sole authority to approve the new laboratory, and he exercised it without needing board endorsement. He had included Goldman in the board meeting as a courtesy, not to rally support. Goldman recalled that McColough paid little heed to the SDS objections and moved forward without seeking or requiring formal board approval.

Parameters for a New Lab

McColough granted Goldman permission to establish Xerox's second full-scale research facility, with one key condition: it must not surpass the established Webster research park in Rochester in terms of budget or staffing. Goldman accepted this lone restriction with a shrug, seeing it as a minor hurdle.

Goldman's Personal Mission

In Goldman's strategic view, the two labs would pursue entirely distinct trajectories. His passion, however, was unequivocally committed to the new venture. With seed funding secured, he embarked on a mission to create what he envisioned as a sanctuary for pioneering science—the future Palo Alto Research Center (PARC).

Key Takeaways

• Internal conflict at Xerox revealed a core tension between short-term product development and long-term, foundational research.
• CEO Peter McColough's unilateral support was crucial in bypassing organizational resistance and championing innovation.
• The new research lab was deliberately scaled to complement, not compete with, the existing Webster facility.
• Jack Goldman's visionary drive and strategic focus were central to founding PARC as a beacon for transformative scientific discovery.

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Dealers of Lightning Summary

Chapter 3

Overview

In the spring of 1969, physicist and weary university provost George Pake was ready for a change, feeling more like a military commander than an academic. His escape from campus politics arrived as a proposition from an old friend, Jack Goldman, a senior scientist at Xerox. Goldman pitched the idea of creating a pristine, well-funded computer research center for the copier giant, promising the kind of long-term commitment that had once nurtured xerography itself. Though initially skeptical of corporate fickleness, Pake was won over after meeting Xerox's top leadership, who convinced him they needed a fresh start far from their traditional Rochester labs. He accepted the monumental task of building this new center.

Pake’s first mission was finding a home. After dismissing an East Coast location, he guided Goldman on a tour of California, with his sights firmly set on the emerging Silicon Valley. They settled on Palo Alto, and by March 1970, his team had secured a vacant building on Porter Drive in the Stanford Industrial Park. The space was a dusty shell, requiring a hands-on cleanup effort before the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) could unofficially open its doors that July. While wrapping up his teaching duties, Pake embarked on a crash course in digital computing, knowing his own expertise in physics wasn't enough. He immediately thought of recruiting Bob Taylor, a man with unparalleled connections whose judgment he trusted.

Taylor’s reputation was built on transformative work at ARPA. There, he had secured funding for the ARPANET in a famously brief meeting, then shrewdly recruited Lawrence Roberts to build it, effectively laying the groundwork for the modern internet. But by 1969, Taylor was burned out. His work had become entangled in the grim logistics of the Vietnam War, an experience that deepened his disillusionment. At the same time, he watched ARPA itself transform, losing its bold, research-driven culture to become more narrowly focused on direct military applications. With the ARPANET launched, Taylor left for a university post in Utah, but soon found himself adrift and dissatisfied.

Pake saw Taylor not for his futuristic ideas about personal computing, but as a supreme talent scout who could attract the brightest minds to PARC. In their meeting, Taylor bluntly critiqued Xerox's strategy and laid out his visionary future of networked computers, assuming he had talked himself out of a job. Pake, however, called days later with an offer to build a lab, though he subtly underscored that Taylor's lack of a formal Ph.D. was a professional handicap. This condescension planted early seeds of tension. Taylor accepted, eager for the chance to assemble a dream team. Upon arriving at the still-raw PARC, he immediately set an ambitious tone, pointing to an office typewriter and declaring their intent to make it obsolete, signaling the profound technological revolution he aimed to ignite from within Xerox.

Pake's Disillusionment and a Corporate Proposition

The spring of 1969 found George Pake, the provost of Washington University, exhausted by a year of intense campus unrest. Feeling like he was running a "command post in a military operation," he realized he did not want to succeed the chancellor and returned to teaching that fall. His respite was short-lived. Over Thanksgiving weekend, he received a call from his old friend Jack Goldman, a senior scientist at Xerox.

Goldman, having learned Pake had turned down a similar role at Ford, made a concerted pitch. He flew Pake to a hotel near the St. Louis airport and painted a vision of a pristine, well-funded computer research center for Xerox, backed by the company's "real money." Pake was skeptical, worrying about the "feast-or-famine" cycle of corporate research investment. Goldman argued that Xerox, having patiently backed Chester Carlson's xerography invention for fifteen years before it paid off, truly understood long-range commitment.

The Pitch to Pake and the California Search

Though initially resistant, Pake agreed to meet Xerox's top brass, CEO Peter McColough and Chairman Joe Wilson. He questioned why they wouldn't just expand the existing Rochester lab, but McColough’s reply—that the Rochester team, while brilliant with xerography, might not be adaptable enough for new technologies—convinced him. Flattered and intrigued by the once-in-a-lifetime chance to bridge physics and computing, Pake accepted the job in early 1970.

His first task was finding a site. Goldman's initial choice, New Haven near Yale, was scrapped due to the university's insularity. Pake steered the search westward, advocating for Palo Alto and Stanford University. He led Goldman on a whirlwind tour of California campuses, but his true target was always the burgeoning Silicon Valley. He overcame Goldman's objection about distance by redefining proximity: one could fly from Palo Alto to SDS in Los Angeles for lunch and be home for dinner. Goldman acquiesced.

Securing a Home on Porter Drive

In March, Pake dispatched two administrators, Dick Jones and Frank Squires, to find a building. They chose a vacant, dusty two-building complex at 3180 Porter Drive in the Stanford Industrial Park. The larger building featured floor-to-ceiling windows, but the interior was a debris-filled mess centered around a lonely olive tree in a courtyard. Jones, his family, Squires, and a secretary spent days cleaning the space themselves with supplies from K Mart. They installed makeshift offices and equipment scavenged from Xerox’s Webster division.

The center officially opened on July 1, 1970. Its first unannounced visitor was a new hire, physicist Frank Galeener, who peered through the window and momentarily feared he’d made a "terrible mistake" upon seeing the sparse setup. Jones had to reassure him that things would improve.

Pake's Crash Course and the Taylor Connection

While finishing his teaching duties, Pake scrambled to educate himself on digital computing, feeling like "an old dog trying to learn new tricks." He knew one person with superb connections in the field: Bob Taylor. Their relationship had begun in 1964 when Pake, as provost, helped rescue Wes Clark's pioneering LINC computer project from MIT, with funding arranged through Taylor at ARPA.

This established a mutual respect. Taylor, by then, had become a pivotal force in computing. He funded the first graduate computer science programs and, notably, the groundbreaking computer graphics program at the University of Utah. His most enduring insight grew from observing the human communities forming around time-shared computers. He envisioned linking these isolated "tribal hamlets" into a seamless network, a concept that became the foundational idea for the ARPANET, the direct precursor to the modern internet.

Securing ARPANET Funding and Leadership

Bob Taylor's vision for a "galactic network" of time-shared computers moved from theory toward reality when he approached ARPA director Charles Herzfeld in February 1966. With characteristic brevity, Herzfeld approved an initial million dollars after just a twenty-minute conversation, bypassing the layers of bureaucracy typical at other agencies. This decisive moment effectively launched the ARPANET project.

Taylor's next hurdle was finding the right person to lead the technical effort. His ideal candidate, MIT researcher Lawrence G. Roberts, initially refused to leave Lincoln Laboratory. Taylor, employing shrewd bureaucratic leverage, reminded Herzfeld that ARPA funded 51% of the lab. A directive from Herzfeld to Lincoln's director soon followed, and Roberts joined ARPA within two weeks, later becoming celebrated as the Internet's principal architect. Taylor wryly noted of his tactics, “I blackmailed Larry Roberts into fame!”

The Personal Toll of Vietnam and a Shifting ARPA

By 1969, Taylor was experiencing profound burnout. His role had expanded beyond pure research into the grim logistics of the Vietnam War. At the White House's request, he traveled to Southeast Asia to untangle contradictory military reporting systems. He installed a centralized computer database at Ton Son Nhut Air Base, which standardized reports but did little to assure their accuracy. The experience transformed his perspective, leading him to view the conflict as a civil war and fueling his desire to disengage.

Concurrently, ARPA itself was changing. The Vietnam War drained resources and politicized the agency. Budgets were slashed, and under new leadership, it pivoted toward "mission-oriented" military projects. The 1969 Mansfield Amendment formally rebranded it as DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency), emphasizing defense relevance. Taylor watched with alarm as this shift threatened the bold, fundamental research he championed.

Departure from Washington and a New Opportunity in Utah

With the ARPANET successfully launched—its first four nodes became operational in September 1969—Taylor felt his work at ARPA was complete. He accepted a position at the University of Utah, arranged by Dave Evans, to lead a vaguely-defined research coordination effort. However, he soon found himself restless and somewhat alienated in Salt Lake City, where his restructuring efforts caused "some dissatisfaction."

Recruited by Xerox PARC

George Pake, building Xerox's new Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), sought Taylor out for his unparalleled network of contacts in computer science. In their meeting, Taylor bluntly criticized Xerox's recent acquisition of Scientific Data Systems (SDS), which he saw as disinterested in interactive computing. He then outlined his visionary future of networked, personal computers. While Pake and his colleagues were initially unmoved by this vision, they were deeply impressed by Taylor's connections and judgment of talent.

Despite Taylor leaving the meeting believing he had talked himself out of a job, Pake called him days later with an offer. The position was complex: Taylor would be an associate manager tasked with recruiting his own boss and building a laboratory team. Pake subtly underscored that Taylor's lack of a Ph.D. was a liability, suggesting this role could help him build "real research credentials." Taylor, eager to assemble a dream team and realize his computing ideas, accepted, but this condescension planted seeds of future conflict.

Setting the Stage at PARC

Upon arriving at PARC, Taylor immediately began shaping its culture and ambition. In a telling moment, he pointed to a popular IBM Selectric typewriter and told Pake's secretary, “We're going to make this thing obsolete,” signaling his intent to redefine office technology entirely. He also agreed to use the name "PARC" over a more technical alternative, avoiding potential ridicule. From the outset, Taylor was determined to prove that his group of pragmatic engineers could outperform the traditionally credentialed scientists elsewhere in the center.

Key Takeaways

• Bob Taylor's ARPANET proposal was approved with remarkable speed by ARPA director Charles Herzfeld, highlighting the agency's unique, agile culture.
• Taylor's persuasive, and sometimes forceful, recruitment tactics were crucial in securing Lawrence Roberts to engineer the nascent network.
• Taylor's direct involvement in Vietnam War logistics deepened his disillusionment with the conflict and coincided with ARPA's transformation into a more narrowly focused, military-aligned agency.
• George Pake recruited Taylor to Xerox PARC primarily for his expertise in identifying top-tier computer science talent, not for his theoretical vision.
• The working relationship between Taylor and Pake was strained from the beginning by unspoken tensions over academic credentials and differing priorities for the research lab.
• Taylor arrived at PARC with a clear, ambitious goal: to render existing office technology obsolete through networked, interactive personal computing.

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